The summer of ‘99 marked the beginning of my five-year stay in Senegal, my parents’ home country. By that time, I was attending my seventh school, and I remember walking into my first history class with a pit in my stomach. I recall my teacher, Mr. Diouf, writing ‘Soundiata Keita et L’Empire du Mali’ (‘Sundiata Keita and the Mali Empire’) on the blackboard, and I remember thinking to myself, “When was Mali ever an empire? And what on earth is Sundiata Keita?” In hindsight, that year marked the beginning of my profound consciousness and admiration of this beloved heritage.
The trajectory of the Mali Empire can be summarized as follows: The 13th century birth, the 14th century heyday, the 15th century downfall and finally, the 17th century collapse.
As we track its course, we notice that its longevity is slightly shorter than other West African empires that ruled the territory between the eighth and the late 18th centuries. The Ghana Empire, its predecessor, lasted five centuries, while the Songhai Empire, its successor, lasted six.
The Mali Empire stretched from the Atlantic Ocean to Niger, comprising present-day Senegal, Guinea, Gambia, Southern Mauritania, Niger and Mali.
The making of this empire involved various interrelated material processes such as government centralization and economic prosperity. But its ego lay elsewhere. It took great pride in territorial expansion and conquest of other kingdoms, and its identity was closely tied to its social imaginary.
An ego wrapped up in territorial conquest
The dissolution of the Ghana Empire in the early 13th century led to rivalries and confrontations among a multitude of kingdoms that were once part of the same empire. As nature abhors a vacuum, states such as the Kingdom of Susu saw the opportunity to rise to power and englobe nearby kingdoms in the area. Among these was the Kingdom of Kangaba, a small territory located on the Upper Bakoy River in the northern Ghana Empire.
The Susu sensed a potential rivalry with the Kangaba and brought it to fruition by killing 11 out of the 12 heirs to the throne of this kingdom; the 12th being too sickly and weak for anyone to bother killing. This remaining heir, Sundiata Keita, would go on to become one of the greatest rulers in West African history.
Sundiata grew up to overcome his disabilities. He surrounded himself with mercenaries and initiated brutal wars against his neighbours. With each victory came more power and more followers who would fight his battles to come.
In the book The Golden Trade of the Moors, British historian Edward William Bovill explains how hostility with the Susu increased as Sundiata conquered and encroached on their territories. The rivalry culminated in the infamous Battle of Kirina in 1235. Sundiata’s army crushed the Susu warriors and began to establish its pre-eminence in an area that stretched over 2,000 kilometres, spanning from the west coast to Niger and extending northward to the Sahara.
The Kangaba Kingdom rose from its position as a small, influential kingdom to become the great Mali Empire in 50 years’ time. It conquered kingdoms such as the Kingdom of Tekrour, Kaabu, Jaara and many more. Mali’s territory was more significant than that of any previous empire that had ruled West Africa.
Empires and kingdoms of West Africa have been conscious of the importance of land and territory throughout history. With land comes more power, self-assurance, and brutality. Territorial expansion and the act of conquering and dominating other communities shaped the Mali Empire.
An empire built on the social imaginary
Algerian scholar Mohammed Arkoun defined the ‘imaginary’ of a social group as “the collection of images carried by that culture about itself or another culture”. Whether we’re talking about a nation, a kingdom or an empire, we observe the necessity to give an identity to the people who make up that territory.
If we can say that Sundiata Keita was the pillar of the Mali Empire’s territorial expansion, his grandson, the flamboyant Mansa Musa, undoubtedly defined the empire’s social imaginary and creative story.
Geographers and historians like Ibn Khaldun and Ibn Fadlallah al-Umari made famous Mansa Musa’s ostentatious pilgrimage to Mecca. Images of the ruler of Mali leading the caravans throughout sub-Saharan Africa, surrounded by hundreds of slaves carrying gold bars, mythologized the emperor. However, he understood better than anyone that the unity of his people was rooted in transcendence and profound cultural narration.
Mansa Musa put Islam at the centre of the empire during his reign. He also acknowledged the importance of pre-Islamic traditions and customs and incorporated them into the religion. Spiritual beliefs, rituals and the worship of a common god developed a sense of sacredness among the people. Mansa Musa built palaces and mosques throughout his reign, and the Islamic influence is evident in the architectural style as well.
In addition to spirituality and architecture, education was also a significant cultural component during Mansa Musa’s reign. He founded the University of Sankoré in Timbuktu, which became the largest collection of books in Africa since the Library of Alexandria.
The importance of education was so strongly ingrained in the Mali Empire that two centuries later, the Berber Andalusi diplomat, Leo Africanus would say: “In Timbuktu, more profit is made from the book trade than from any other line of business.”
The collective identity that came from Mali’s religion, architecture and education moulded a social imaginary that was instrumental in glorifying the empire.
Dominance in its many forms
The Mali Empire emerged from the mists of history, and at its inception, its identity was tribal; however, the heritage and legacy that stemmed from this empire transcended tribal affiliations. Until its decline and final dissolution, several rulers had contributed significantly to the power of the Mali Empire. But the genius of both Sundiata Keita and Mansa Musa was their understanding that the empire had to assert its dominance in more ways than one. Physical expansion was vital, and its power was reinforced by a mythic narrative, which captured minds. With those two elements combined, the Mali Empire spanned centuries and remained relevant, representing great African pride to this day.
In the remaining months of that school year, Mr. Diouf’s lessons covered most West African kingdoms and empires. We learned about the kingdoms of Kayor, Futa, Mossi and so many more. In one way or another, they all played a part in shaping the identity of the 14-year-old girl that I was. But the Mali Empire single-handedly captured my heart and mind with its social imaginary and boosted my ego with its belligerent spirit.
References:
Oliver, P. James. (2013). Mansa Musa and the Empire of Mali. CreateSpace.
Du Bois, W.E.B. (1915). The Negro. Forgotten Books.
Davidson, Basil. (1988). The Lost Cities of Africa. Time Warner Trade Publishing.
Bovill, Edward William. (2009). The Golden Trade of the Moors: West African Kingdoms in the Fourteenth Century. Markus Wiener Publishers.
Lugan, Bernard. (2018). Atlas Historique de l’Afrique des Origines à Nos Jours. Des Editions du Rocher.
